His major work is ‘The principles of morals and legislation’, 1789, which is divided into three sections:
1. Motivation of human beings and the concept of good and bad – “Nature has placed mankind under the goverence of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we shall do, as well as to determine what we shall do.”
2. Principle of Utility – The greatest good for the greatest number. The most useful course of action if trying to maximise pleasure and minimize pain. In a given situation, one must examine the consequential pain/pleasure resultant for all concerned.
3. Hedonic Calculus – The Hedonic Calculus weighs up the pain and pleasure generated by the available moral actions to find the best option. It considers several factors:
a. Intensity
b. Duration
c. Certainty or uncertainty
d. Nearness or remoteness
e. Consequences
f. Purity
g. Extent
If the probable pain of an action out weighs its pleasure then Bentham says that it is morally wrong.
Weaknesses of Bentham’s utilitarianism
* If 10 rapists were to rape the same woman, then using the Hedonic Calculus, their pleasure would outweigh the woman’s pain. Therefore, it would become justifiable. This is called the Swine Ethic.
* Measure e. – Consequences is not measurable because we do not know how far the consequences will reach. When do we stop?
* There is no protection for the minorities.
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism
Mill criticised Bentham for focussing morality on pleasure alone, which seemed rather base to him. Thus, he decided to introduce a theory of utility for the common person , which replaced pleasure for ‘happiness’ (“the greatest happiness for the greatest number”) and moved away from mere quantity to the quality of happiness as well. Although he believed that the wellbeing of the individual was of primary concern, happiness is best achieved when it is subject to the rules that protect the common good.
Mill defined happiness as something which is cultural and spiritual rather than just physical and distinguished between lower pleasures and higher pleasures. He famously wrote “It is better to be a human being satisfied than a pig satisfied, better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.”
Weaknesses of Mill’s utilitarianism
* Sidgewick – “In practice it is hard to distinguish between higher and lower pleasures.” This is due to the subjectivity of “pleasure”
* WD Ross – “Single-factor” moral theories don’t work because life is too complex. We have “prima facie” duties. I.e. who would I save – my son or a man with the cure to AIDS? – My son because my prima facie duty is to him.
* RM Hare – you would still have to tell the truth to a mad axe man. It would still be possible to justify slavery – minority rights not protected.
Comparing Bentham and Mill
Bentham
Mill
“the greatest good [pleasure] for the greatest number”
“the greatest happiness for the greatest number”
Focussed on the individual alone
we should protect the common good
