Philosophy of Everything

Ideology

ideology. The study of the nature and origins of ideas, especially those that are regarded as authoritative or true; sometimes contrasted with science (knowledge) or philosophy (reasoning).The word is derived from ancient Greek ideos logos, meaning a mark set on wax to indicate something which has been cast in it. In rhetoric this term was used by Aristotle for the principle or force behind an argument. It came into use again during the Renaissance when religious beliefs were studied scientifically.In its modern usage ideology refers to the doctrines and opinions of political movements or individuals, such as Marxism or fascism. More generally, however, it also means any system of belief or way of life: the religion of Islam or Christianity, for example. In addition there is a more general sense of 'ideas' as determinations of truth and falsity, right and wrong, good and evil. This latter sense is not usually connected with politics but rather with aesthetics and ethics. However, it can be argued that these too have their ideological aspect because they determine what constitutes beauty or goodness in human affairs. Aesthetic judgments are inevitably coloured by one's cultural background, whereas ethical decisions must take account of certain universal truths. Thus aesthetic judgements may become 'ethics' through being reinterpreted within a given culture. But in some cases the reverse process occurs, so that ethical considerations become part of the canon of aesthetics.All ideologies rest ultimately upon power relations between groups of people, whether social classes, nations, races, etc., or whatever else is imagined to be the basis of authority. Ideologies always reflect the interests of dominant groups at any particular time. For example, capitalism reflects the interests of capital accumulation and class domination, while socialism attempts to give priority to working-class needs. These two forms of society are mutually contradictory and will continue to clash until one side wins out over the other. Yet neither would ever come about without the existence of conflicting economic interests. Similarly, democracy does not simply mean government by the people; it implies conflict among different classes of citizens. Democratic institutions do not exist unless there are competing powers and authorities whose views are opposed. Even if democratic elections result in a ruling party representing all parties, the ultimate decision remains that of the government. To sum up: even though both capitalism and socialism attempt to create societies based on egalitarian principles, each form of society rests upon antagonistic social forces.Although Marx did not explicitly refer to his theories as an ideology, he believed them to be fundamentally revolutionary against bourgeois capitalism. They sought to overthrow the existing order by replacing it with a new one. By contrast, Freudian psychology is essentially conservative, since it aims only to understand the inner workings of the mind. It assumes that human behaviour is determined by unconscious drives and urges which we cannot control consciously. Although Freud himself claimed to be striving for scientific objectivity, psychoanalysis was nevertheless influenced by trends in German thought. Psychoanalysis was largely accepted as valid by most educated people who felt themselves to be dominated by the conventions of bourgeois society. As a consequence, Freud became popular in academic circles. Freudians had little interest in overthrowing the established order, except insofar as they wanted to liberate humanity from repression and guilt. On the contrary, they saw psychoanalysis as a kind of therapy aimed at curing neurotic symptoms. In this way they helped to preserve the status quo by reconciling the individual with conventional morality. Hence Freud never made much impact outside academia.Marxism, however, was revolutionary in character. It attempted to change society by changing men's consciousness. Its appeal lay primarily in its promise to replace the capitalist economy with a socialist one. Through revolution the proletariat could seize power and establish a state run according to communist principles. Only then would everyone be equal under a system of workers' councils and factory committees. After several decades of bitter struggle, the working class finally succeeded in establishing a proletarian dictatorship in Russia. Lenin declared that the aim of Soviet Communism was not merely to make the state stronger than the capitalists, but to transform every person into a worker. According to him, the end of history was nigh, for mankind would no longer need to work for a living. Everyone would receive an unconditional income sufficient to support a full and contented life. Work itself would gradually disappear as production shifted to collective farms. This utopian dream of paradise in the future turned out to be far too optimistic. Soon the Communist Party began to rule the country by force. When Stalin seized absolute power, he tried to realize his vision of a perfect society. Millions died in purges and labour camps. The Marxist utopia was replaced by a monstrous tyranny. With the death of Stalin, the final remnants of the revolutionary movement disappeared. Capitalism continued to dominate the world.