PSYCHOLOGY

Psychoanalytical studies

More influential than James and Leuba and others in that tradition were the . gave explanations of the genesis of religion in various of his writings. In he applied the idea of the (involving unresolved sexual feelings of, for example, a son toward his mother and hostility toward his father) and postulated its emergence in the primordial stage of human development. This stage he conceived to be one in which there were small groups, each dominated by a father. According to Freud's reconstruction of primordial society, the father is displaced by a son (probably violently), and further attempts to displace the new leader bring about a truce in which incest taboos (proscriptions against intrafamily sexual relations) are formed. The slaying of a suitable animal, symbolic of the deposed and dead father, connected totemism with taboo. In Moses and Monotheism Freud reconstructed biblical history in accord with his general theory, but biblical scholars and historians would not accept his account since it was in opposition to the point of view of the accepted of historical evidence. His ideas were also developed in The Future of an Illusion. Freud's view of the idea of God as being a version of the father image and his thesis that religious belief is at bottom infantile and neurotic do not depend upon the speculative accounts of prehistory and biblical history with which Freud dressed up his version of the origin and nature of religion. The theory can still stand as an account of the way in which religion operates in individual psychology, though of course it has also attracted criticism on grounds other than historical ones (e.g., Buddhism does not have a father figure to worship).

A considerable literature has developed around the relationship of psychoanalysis and religion. Some argue, despite the atheistic mood of Freud's writing and his critique of religious belief, that the main theory is compatible with faith—on the grounds, for instance, that the theory describes certain mechanisms operative in people's religious psychology that represent modes in which people respond to the challenge of religious truth. Even if this position can be sustained, it is clear, nevertheless, that acceptance of Freudian insights makes a considerable difference to the way in which religious experience and behaviour are viewed. Questions have arisen about the range of applicability of Freud's ideas—e.g., whether or not his theories apply outside the Western milieu, such as in Theravāda Buddhism, which does not possess a father figure or worship a god. Various attempts have been made to test Freud's theory of religion empirically, but the results have been .

The Swiss psychoanalyst (1875–1961) adopted a very different posture, one that was more sympathetic to religion and more concerned with a positive appreciation of . Jung considered the question of the existence of God to be unanswerable by the psychologist and adopted a kind of . Yet he considered the spiritual realm to possess a psychological reality that cannot be explained away, and certainly not in the manner suggested by Freud. Jung postulated, in addition to the personal unconscious (roughly as in Freud), the , which is the repository of human experience and which contains "" (i.e., basic images that are universal in that they recur in independent cultures). The irruption of these images from the unconscious into the realm of he viewed as the basis of religious experience and often of artistic creativity. Religion can thus help men, who stand in need of the mysterious and symbolic, in the process of individuation—of becoming individual selves. Some of Jung's writings have been devoted to elucidating some of the archetypal symbols, and his work in comparative mythology, the history of alchemy, and other similar areas of concern has proved greatly influential in stimulating the investigations of other interested scholars. Thus, the Eranos circle, a group of scholars meeting around the leadership of Jung, contributed considerably to the history of religions. Associated with this circle of scholars have been Mircea Eliade, the eminent Romanian-French historian of religion, and the Hungarian-Swiss historian of religion (1897–1973). This movement has been one of the main factors in the modern revival of interest in the analysis of myth.

Among other psychoanalytic interpreters of religion, the American scholar (1900–80) modified Freudian theory and produced a more complex account of the functions of religion. Part of the modification is viewing the Oedipus complex as based not so much on sexuality as on a "much more profound desire"—namely, the childish desire to remain attached to protecting figures. The right religion, in Fromm's estimation, can, in principle, foster an individual's highest potentialities, but religion in practice tends to relapse into being neurotic. religion, according to Freud, is dysfunctional and alienates man from himself.

Other studies

Apart from Jung's work, there have been various attempts to relate psychoanalytic theory to comparative material. Thus, the English anthropologist , in his Oedipus and Job in West African Religion, combined elements from Freud and Durkheim, and G.M. Carstairs (a British psychologist), in The Twice Born, investigated in depth the inhabitants of an Indian town from a psychoanalytic point of view and with special reference to their religious beliefs and practices. Among the more systematic attempts to evaluate the evidences of the various theories is Religious Behaviour, by Michael Argyle, another British psychologist.

A certain amount of work in relation to the effects of and mystical experience—and also in relation to drug-induced "higher" states of consciousness—has also been carried on. Investigation of religious responses as correlated with various personality types is another area of enquiry; and of religion, largely under the influence of the French psychologist (1896–1980), has played a prominent part in educational theory in the teaching of religion. Most scholars agree, however, that more needs to be done to make results in the psychology of religion more precise; and also, for reasons that are unclear, very few people recently have concerned themselves with the field, which thus is in a state of suspension after a flurry of activity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.