Atoms & Light

In 1657, Otto von Guericke pumped the air from two hemispheres and eight horses could not pull them apart.

Amontons found a volume of air shrank as the temperature fell and realized the it would become zero.

In 1774, Joseph Priestley isolated oxygen while Lavoisier released hydrogen and burned this with oxygen to make water.

In 1832, Michael Faraday built the first electric motor and generator.

John Newlands noticed similar chemical properties in a list of elements demonstrating the existence of unknown elements.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented a microscope with 300 times magnification allowing him to see bacteria, spermatozoa and red blood cells.

In 1605, Kepler concluded that all the planets moved in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus of the ellipse.

Galileo reported that the orbital periods of Jupiter's moons permitted accurate determination of longitude on Earth.

Newton and Leibniz independently invented calculus, used extensively in mathematics, science, engineering and economics.

WHO THE HELL ARE WE? is a series of short books and videos describing the evolution of civilization.

Almost everyone on the planet is five times wealthier than their ancestors only 50 years ago. This astonishing phenomenon has also improved health, education, and longevity. The cause; an explosive growth in ideas and productivity.

It began when we learned to control fire, evolved articulate speech and stumbled onto the way to create infinite wealth; free trade. The discovery of agriculture made us richer but we also learned how to destroy wealth. Great civilization grew up but then disappeared leaving only incredible ruins and ideas.

Later books detail some of the ideas and developments that increased the average life span from about 40 years to more than 80 and the average world income from less than $3 to more than $33 per person per day (and to $140 per day in some countries).